[영문] CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS = xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS = xxi
ABBREVIATIONS = xxiii
1 Second Language Acquisition : Introduction, Foundations, and Overview / William C. Ritchie ; Tei K. Bhatia
Ⅰ. Introduction = 1
Ⅱ. Historical Background and Theoretical Approaches = 4
A. The 1940s and 1950s = 5
B. The 1960s to the 1980s-Theoretical Approaches = 6
C. Some Integrated Models of SLA = 16
D. Summary = 18
Ⅲ. Current Issues in SLA Research = 18
A. Introduction : The Central Questions = 18
B. The Issues = 22
C. Summary = 35
Ⅳ. The Sections and Chapters of This Volume = 35
A. Part Ⅰ : Research and Theoretical Issues in Second Language Acquisition = 35
B. Part Ⅱ : Issues of Maturation and Modularity in Second Language Acquisition = 36
C. Part Ⅲ : Second Language Speech and the Influence of the First Language = 38
D. Part Ⅳ : Research Methodology and Applications = 39
E. Part Ⅴ : Modality and the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition = 39
F. Part Ⅵ : The Neuropsychology of Second Language Acquisition and Use = 40
G. Part Ⅶ : Language Contact and Its Consequences = 40
Ⅴ. Conclusions = 41
References = 42
Ⅰ RESEARCH AND THEORETICAL ISSUES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
2 The Logical and Developmental Problems of Second Language Acquisition / Kevin R. Gregg
Ⅰ. Explanatory Goals of L2 Acquisition Theory : The Logical and Developmental Problems = 50
Ⅱ. The Logical Problem of L2 Acquisition : Explaining L2 Competence
A. Why Competence ? = 53
B. The Learnability Condition = 54
C. Learnability Considerations in L2 Acquisition = 56
D. The Nature of L2 Competence : Modular versus Nonmodular Analyses = 57
Ⅲ. The Developmental Problem : Explaining the Acquisition Process = 66
A. Criteria for an Acquisition Theory = 66
B. The Theoretical Framework Criterion : Interfacing with the Logical Problem = 67
C. The Sequence Criterion : Developmental Sequences = 68
D. The Mechanism Criterion = 69
Ⅳ. Constructing an L2 Acquisition Theory : Prospects and Problems = 73
References = 75
Ⅱ ISSUESOFMATURATIONANDMODULARITYIN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
3 Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition : Current Trends and New Directions / Lydia White
Ⅰ. Introduction = 85
Ⅱ. Principles and Parameters Theory = 85
A. Principles : C-Command = 86
B. Parameters : Verb Raising = 88
Ⅲ. Principles and Parameters in L2 Acquisition = 90
A. Access to UG : Competence and Acquisition of Competence = 91
B. Perspectives on Principles = 94
C. Perspectives on Parameters = 96
Ⅳ. Some Current Issues = 103
A. Maturational Effects = 103
B. Near Native-Speaker Competence = 105
C. Exploring Interlanguage Competence = 109
Ⅴ. New Directions = 112
A. Child-Adult Differences = 112
B. Phonology = 114
Ⅵ. Conclusions = 115
References = 116
4 A Parameter-Setting Approach to Second Language Acquisition / Suzanne Flynn
Ⅰ. Introduction = 121
Ⅱ. Background = 123
A. Universal Grammar and Language Acquisition : General Assumptions = 123
Ⅲ. L I versus L2 Acquisition : The Logical Problem of L2 Acquisition and the Full Access Hypothesis = 127
Ⅳ. Alternative Proposals = 129
A. Methodological Considerations = 130
B. The No Access Hypothesis : General Learning Strategies and Analogy as an Account of L2 Learning = 131
C. The Partial Access Hypothesis = 133
Ⅴ. Evidence against the Partial Access Hypothesis and for the Full Access Hypothesis = 134
A. New Parameter Settings : The CP Direction Parameter = 134
B. L1 Vacuously Applied Principles = 137
C. Error Data from Adult L2 Acquisition = 140
D. Nontransfer of Language-Specific Aspects = 142
E. Functional Categories = 145
F. Derivative Version of the Partial Access Hypothesis = 149
Ⅵ. Discussion and Conclusions = 150
References = 152
5 MaturationandtheissueofUniversaiGrammarinSecond Language Acquisition / Jacquelyn Schachter
Ⅰ. Background = 159
Ⅱ. Universal Grammar as a Knowledge Base = 161
Ⅲ. Biology = 163
Ⅳ. A Critical Period for L1 Acquisition = 164
Ⅴ. A Critical Period for L2 Acquisition = 166
Ⅵ. Tests of a Principle and a Parameter in Adult L2 = 174
Ⅶ. Child L2 versus Adult L2 = 179
Ⅷ. Do Principles Mature ? = 183
Ⅸ. Windows of Opportunity = 184
Ⅹ. Conclusion = 187
References = 188
6 A Functional-Typological Approach to Second Language Acquisition Theory / Fred R. Eckman
Ⅰ. Introduction = 195
Ⅱ. The Markedness Differential Hypothesis = 196
A. Background = 196
B. Assumptions Underlying the MDH = 198
C. Supporting Evidence = 199
D. Evaluation of the MDH = 200
E. Problems with the MDH = 202
Ⅲ. The Structure Conformity Hypothesis = 204
A. Background = 204
B. Assumptions Underlying the SCH = 205
C. Supporting Evidence = 205
D. Evaluation of the SCH = 207
Ⅳ. The SCH and Recent Proposals = 208
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 209
References = 209
7 Information-Processing Approaches to Research on Second Language Acquisition and Use / Barry McLaughlin ; Roberto Heredia
Ⅰ. What Is Information Processing ? = 213
Ⅱ. Basic Assumptions of Information-Processing Perspective = 214
A. Learning and Automaticity = 214
B. Role of Practice = 216
C. Restructuring = 217
Ⅲ. Theoretical Options = 218
Ⅳ. Is Learning a Monolithic Construct ? = 219
Ⅴ. Sources of Individual Difference = 222
Ⅵ. Pedagogical Implications : Instructional Strategies = 224
References = 225
8 Variationist Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition / Dennis Preston
Ⅰ. A Brief History of Language Variation Study = 229
Ⅱ. Two Models of Variation = 230
A. The Labovian Paradigm = 230
B. The Dynamic Paradigm = 240
C. The Relationship between the Labovian and Dynamic Paradigms = 245
Ⅲ. Recent Trends = 246
A. Objections = 246
B. Current Work = 251
C. The Psycholinguistics of Sociolinguistics in L2 Acquisition = 257
References = 263
Ⅲ SECOND LANGUAGE SPEECH AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE
9 Second Language Speech Jonathan Leather / Allan James
Ⅰ. Introduction = 269
Ⅱ. Learner Constraints on the Acquisition of L2 Speech = 270
A. Motivation = 270
B. Social Acceptance and Social Distance = 271
C. Personality Variables = 272
D. Sex = 272
E. Oral and Auditory Capacities = 272
Ⅲ. Perception and Production of L2 Speech Sounds = 273
A. Construction of New Perceptual Categories = 273
B. Production of New Sounds = 277
C. Developmental Interrelation of Perception and Production = 281
Ⅳ. Developmental Interrelation between L1 and L2 Speech Acquisition = 285
A. Product and Process = 285
B. The Influence of L1 Structure = 286
C. The Identification of L2 and L1 Elements = 287
D. Processing Strategies and L1 Structural Influence = 290
E. The Developmental Dimension = 291
F. The Role of Universal Typological Preferences = 293
G. Contextual Constraints = 295
H. The Contribution of Theoretical Phonology = 297
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 299
References = 300
10 Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory : The Role of Language Transfer / Susan Gass
Ⅰ. Introduction = 317
Ⅱ. Language Transfer : An Historical Overview = 318
A. Defining Language Transfer = 318
B. Contrastive Analysis = 319
C. Creative Construction = 319
D. The Settling of the Pendulum = 320
Ⅲ. Language Transfer as a Cognitive Activity = 321
A. The Scope of Language Transfer Phenomena = 321
B. Predicting Language Transfer = 324
Ⅳ. Language Transfer and UG = 329
A. Principles of UG = 330
B. UG Parameters = 332
C. The Centrality of the NL = 334
Ⅴ. Language Transfer and the Competition Model = 335
Ⅵ. Effects on Grammars = 337
Ⅶ. Conclusion = 338
References = 340
Ⅳ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
11 Issues in Second Language Acquisition Research : Examining Substance and Procedure / David Nunan
Ⅰ. Introduction = 349
Ⅱ. Historical Background = 349
Ⅲ. Substantive Issues in L2 Acquisition Research = 350
A. Creative Construction = 351
B. Other Issues = 351
Ⅳ. Methodological Issues in L2 Acquisition Research = 359
A. Qualitative and Quantitative Research = 359
B. Longitudinal versus Cross-Sectional Research = 364
C. Experimental versus Naturalistic Data Collection = 365
D. Elicited versus Naturalistic Data = 366
E. Role Playing = 369
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 369
References = 371
12 The Use of Acceptability judgments in Second Language Acquisition Research / Antonella Sorace
Ⅰ. Introduction = 375
Ⅱ. The Nature of Linguistic Acceptability : General Issues = 376
A. Validity : What Does an Acceptability Judgment Test Measure ? = 376
B. Reliability : Why Do Informants Produce Inconsistent Judgments ? = 380
C. Acceptability Hierarchies and Universal Grammar = 382
Ⅲ. Linguistic Acceptability in Normative Languages = 384
A. Validity and Reliability of Normative Acceptability Judgments = 385
B. Indeterminacy in IL Grammars = 386
Ⅳ. The Empirical Measurement of Linguistic Acceptability = 391
A. The Elicitation of Acceptability Judgments = 391
B. Types of Judgment Scales = 393
C. Types of Responses : Absolute versus Comparative Judgments = 395
D. Applying the Psychophysical Paradigm : Magnitude Estimation of Linguistic Acceptability = 400
Ⅴ. Conclusions = 404
References = 405
Ⅴ MODALITYANDTHELINGUiSTICENVIRONMENT IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
13 The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition / Michael H. Long
Ⅰ. Some Possible Roles for the Environment = 413
Ⅱ. Foreigner Talk Discourse and Positive Evidence = 414
Ⅲ. The Insufficiency of Comprehensible input = 421
Ⅳ. Input and Cognitive Processing = 426
A. Attention, Awareness, and Focus on Form = 426
B. Negative Evidence = 430
Ⅴ. Negotiation for Meaning and Acquisition = 445
A. The Role of Conversation = 445
B. The Interaction Hypothesis = 451
References = 454
14 The Acquisition of English Syntax by Deaf Learners / Gerald P. Berent
Ⅰ. Deafness and Language Acquisition = 469
Ⅱ. Deaf Learners' Knowledge of Specific English Structures = 472
A. Sentence Complexity and Parts of Speech = 472
B. The TSA Structures = 473
C. Nine Syntactic Structures in Context = 480
D. Clausal and Nonclausal Structures = 482
E. Infinitive Complement Interpretation = 483
Ⅲ. A Framework for Explaining Deaf Learners' Syntactic Knowledge = 484
A. Theoretical Background = 484
B. Young Hearing Children's Phrasal Structures = 488
C. Deaf Learners' Acquisition of English Syntax = 489
Ⅳ. Learnability and Deaf Learners' Syntactic Knowledge = 494
A. Binding Principles and Learnability = 494
B. Movement Rules and Learnability = 497
C. Be as a Raising Verb = 499
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 500
References = 502
Ⅵ THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND USE
15 Neurolinguistics of Second Language Acquisition and Use / Loraine K. Obler ; Sharon Hannigan
Ⅰ. Introduction = 509
Ⅱ. The Process of L2 Acquisition = 511
A. A Critical or Sensitive Period = 511
B. Factors Involved in Successful Postpubertal L2 Acquisition = 512
Ⅲ. Lateral Dominance for Language in Bilinguals = 513
Ⅳ. Language Breakdown = 516
Ⅴ. Future Directions = 519
References = 520
Ⅶ LANGUAGE CONTACT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
16 The Primacy of Aspect in First and Second Language Acquisition : The Pidgin-Creole Connection / Roger W. Andersen ; Yasuhiro Shirai
Ⅰ. Introduction = 527
Ⅱ. Tense and Aspect = 530
A. Grammatical Aspect versus Inherent Lexical Aspect = 530
B. The Vendlerean Four-Way Classification = 531
Ⅲ. Acquisition of Tense and Aspect = 533
A. L1 Acquisition = 533
B. L2 Acquisition = 543
Ⅳ. The Distributional Bias Hypothesis = 548
A. Introduction = 548
B. Distributional Bias Studies = 549
Ⅴ. A Prototype Account = 555
A. Prototype Theory = 555
B. Tense and Aspect Morphology as a Prototype Category = 555
Ⅵ. Summary and Discussion = 559
A. Description = 559
B. Explanation = 560
References = 562
17 Bilingualism / Suzanne Romaine
Ⅰ. Introduction = 571
A. Definitions of Bilingualism = 571
B. Relationship between Bilingualism and Other Research Fields = 572
Ⅱ. Bilingual Speech Communities = 573
A. The Sociolinguistic Composition of Multilingual Countries = 574
B. Domains of Language Use = 576
C. Diglossia and Bilingualism = 577
D. Language Maintenance and Shift = 580
Ⅲ. Bilingual Individuals = 583
A. Measuring Bilingualism = 584
B. Problems with Measuring Bilingualism = 588
C. Borrowing and Interference as an Individual and Community Phenomenon = 589
Ⅳ. Bilingualism and Education = 592
A. Bilingualism and School Achievement = 592
B. Types of Bilingual Education Programs = 593
C. Bilingual Education in an International Perspective = 596
D. Legal Implications Arising from Legislation on Bilingual Education = 597
E. Reactions to Bilingual Education = 597
Ⅴ. Attitudes toward Bilingualism = 598
A. Negative and Positive Attitudes toward Bilingualism = 598
B. Attitudes toward Code Switching = 599
Ⅵ. Conclusion = 600
References = 601
18 Primary Language Attrition in the Context of Bilingualism / Herbert W. Seliger
Ⅰ. Defining Primary Language Attrition = 605
Ⅱ. Primary Language Attrition and L2 or Foreign Language Loss = 607
A. The Problem of Establishing Baseline Knowledge = 607
B. The Manner and Context of Acquisition = 608
Ⅲ. Primary Language Attrition and Other Forms of Language Mixing = 610
Ⅳ. L1 Attrition and Linguistic Theory = 614
A. Performance or Competence = 614
B. External Sources of Evidence = 616
C. Internal Sources of Evidence = 616
D. An Example of a Universal Principle in Primary Language Attrition = 617
E. Redundancy Reduction as an Inevitable Process = 623
Ⅴ. Conclusion : Context Dependence, Bilingualism, and Primary Language Attrition = 623
References = 625
19 Bilingual Language Mixing, Universal Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition / Tej K. Bhatia ; William C. Ritchie
Ⅰ. Introduction = 627
Ⅱ. Definitions of CM and CS, Borrowing, and Other Related Phenomena = 629
A. Matrix and Embedded Language = 631
B. Borrowing and CM and CS = 632
C. CM and CS and Pidgin and Creoles = 634
D. CM and CS and Diglossia = 634
Ⅲ. Types of CM and CS = 635
Ⅳ. Constraints on CM and CS = 638
A. Is CM a Random Phenomenon ? = 639
B. The Search for Universals = 640
C. Formal Constraints on CM = 640
D. Theoretical Models and Constraints on CM = 645
Ⅴ. Semantics of CS and CM = 657
Ⅵ. Sociopsychological, Linguistic and Pragmatic Motivations for CM and CS = 659
A. Linguistic and Pragmatic Functions = 659
B. Nonlinguistic (Sociopsychological) Functions = 662
Ⅶ. Attitudes toward CM and CS = 667
Ⅷ. Polyglot Aphasia and CM and CS = 670
Ⅸ. CM and CS and Language Acquisition = 674
Ⅹ. Problems = 679
A. Theoretical and Analytical Problems = 680
B. Methodological Problems = 681
XI. Conclusions = 682
References = 683
GLOSSARY = 689
AUTHOR INDEX = 707
SUBJECT INDEX = 723
CONTRIBUTORS = xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS = xxi
ABBREVIATIONS = xxiii
1 Second Language Acquisition : Introduction, Foundations, and Overview / William C. Ritchie ; Tei K. Bhatia
Ⅰ. Introduction = 1
Ⅱ. Historical Background and Theoretical Approaches = 4
A. The 1940s and 1950s = 5
B. The 1960s to the 1980s-Theoretical Approaches = 6
C. Some Integrated Models of SLA = 16
D. Summary = 18
Ⅲ. Current Issues in SLA Research = 18
A. Introduction : The Central Questions = 18
B. The Issues = 22
C. Summary = 35
Ⅳ. The Sections and Chapters of This Volume = 35
A. Part Ⅰ : Research and Theoretical Issues in Second Language Acquisition = 35
B. Part Ⅱ : Issues of Maturation and Modularity in Second Language Acquisition = 36
C. Part Ⅲ : Second Language Speech and the Influence of the First Language = 38
D. Part Ⅳ : Research Methodology and Applications = 39
E. Part Ⅴ : Modality and the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition = 39
F. Part Ⅵ : The Neuropsychology of Second Language Acquisition and Use = 40
G. Part Ⅶ : Language Contact and Its Consequences = 40
Ⅴ. Conclusions = 41
References = 42
Ⅰ RESEARCH AND THEORETICAL ISSUES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
2 The Logical and Developmental Problems of Second Language Acquisition / Kevin R. Gregg
Ⅰ. Explanatory Goals of L2 Acquisition Theory : The Logical and Developmental Problems = 50
Ⅱ. The Logical Problem of L2 Acquisition : Explaining L2 Competence
A. Why Competence ? = 53
B. The Learnability Condition = 54
C. Learnability Considerations in L2 Acquisition = 56
D. The Nature of L2 Competence : Modular versus Nonmodular Analyses = 57
Ⅲ. The Developmental Problem : Explaining the Acquisition Process = 66
A. Criteria for an Acquisition Theory = 66
B. The Theoretical Framework Criterion : Interfacing with the Logical Problem = 67
C. The Sequence Criterion : Developmental Sequences = 68
D. The Mechanism Criterion = 69
Ⅳ. Constructing an L2 Acquisition Theory : Prospects and Problems = 73
References = 75
Ⅱ ISSUESOFMATURATIONANDMODULARITYIN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
3 Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition : Current Trends and New Directions / Lydia White
Ⅰ. Introduction = 85
Ⅱ. Principles and Parameters Theory = 85
A. Principles : C-Command = 86
B. Parameters : Verb Raising = 88
Ⅲ. Principles and Parameters in L2 Acquisition = 90
A. Access to UG : Competence and Acquisition of Competence = 91
B. Perspectives on Principles = 94
C. Perspectives on Parameters = 96
Ⅳ. Some Current Issues = 103
A. Maturational Effects = 103
B. Near Native-Speaker Competence = 105
C. Exploring Interlanguage Competence = 109
Ⅴ. New Directions = 112
A. Child-Adult Differences = 112
B. Phonology = 114
Ⅵ. Conclusions = 115
References = 116
4 A Parameter-Setting Approach to Second Language Acquisition / Suzanne Flynn
Ⅰ. Introduction = 121
Ⅱ. Background = 123
A. Universal Grammar and Language Acquisition : General Assumptions = 123
Ⅲ. L I versus L2 Acquisition : The Logical Problem of L2 Acquisition and the Full Access Hypothesis = 127
Ⅳ. Alternative Proposals = 129
A. Methodological Considerations = 130
B. The No Access Hypothesis : General Learning Strategies and Analogy as an Account of L2 Learning = 131
C. The Partial Access Hypothesis = 133
Ⅴ. Evidence against the Partial Access Hypothesis and for the Full Access Hypothesis = 134
A. New Parameter Settings : The CP Direction Parameter = 134
B. L1 Vacuously Applied Principles = 137
C. Error Data from Adult L2 Acquisition = 140
D. Nontransfer of Language-Specific Aspects = 142
E. Functional Categories = 145
F. Derivative Version of the Partial Access Hypothesis = 149
Ⅵ. Discussion and Conclusions = 150
References = 152
5 MaturationandtheissueofUniversaiGrammarinSecond Language Acquisition / Jacquelyn Schachter
Ⅰ. Background = 159
Ⅱ. Universal Grammar as a Knowledge Base = 161
Ⅲ. Biology = 163
Ⅳ. A Critical Period for L1 Acquisition = 164
Ⅴ. A Critical Period for L2 Acquisition = 166
Ⅵ. Tests of a Principle and a Parameter in Adult L2 = 174
Ⅶ. Child L2 versus Adult L2 = 179
Ⅷ. Do Principles Mature ? = 183
Ⅸ. Windows of Opportunity = 184
Ⅹ. Conclusion = 187
References = 188
6 A Functional-Typological Approach to Second Language Acquisition Theory / Fred R. Eckman
Ⅰ. Introduction = 195
Ⅱ. The Markedness Differential Hypothesis = 196
A. Background = 196
B. Assumptions Underlying the MDH = 198
C. Supporting Evidence = 199
D. Evaluation of the MDH = 200
E. Problems with the MDH = 202
Ⅲ. The Structure Conformity Hypothesis = 204
A. Background = 204
B. Assumptions Underlying the SCH = 205
C. Supporting Evidence = 205
D. Evaluation of the SCH = 207
Ⅳ. The SCH and Recent Proposals = 208
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 209
References = 209
7 Information-Processing Approaches to Research on Second Language Acquisition and Use / Barry McLaughlin ; Roberto Heredia
Ⅰ. What Is Information Processing ? = 213
Ⅱ. Basic Assumptions of Information-Processing Perspective = 214
A. Learning and Automaticity = 214
B. Role of Practice = 216
C. Restructuring = 217
Ⅲ. Theoretical Options = 218
Ⅳ. Is Learning a Monolithic Construct ? = 219
Ⅴ. Sources of Individual Difference = 222
Ⅵ. Pedagogical Implications : Instructional Strategies = 224
References = 225
8 Variationist Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition / Dennis Preston
Ⅰ. A Brief History of Language Variation Study = 229
Ⅱ. Two Models of Variation = 230
A. The Labovian Paradigm = 230
B. The Dynamic Paradigm = 240
C. The Relationship between the Labovian and Dynamic Paradigms = 245
Ⅲ. Recent Trends = 246
A. Objections = 246
B. Current Work = 251
C. The Psycholinguistics of Sociolinguistics in L2 Acquisition = 257
References = 263
Ⅲ SECOND LANGUAGE SPEECH AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE FIRST LANGUAGE
9 Second Language Speech Jonathan Leather / Allan James
Ⅰ. Introduction = 269
Ⅱ. Learner Constraints on the Acquisition of L2 Speech = 270
A. Motivation = 270
B. Social Acceptance and Social Distance = 271
C. Personality Variables = 272
D. Sex = 272
E. Oral and Auditory Capacities = 272
Ⅲ. Perception and Production of L2 Speech Sounds = 273
A. Construction of New Perceptual Categories = 273
B. Production of New Sounds = 277
C. Developmental Interrelation of Perception and Production = 281
Ⅳ. Developmental Interrelation between L1 and L2 Speech Acquisition = 285
A. Product and Process = 285
B. The Influence of L1 Structure = 286
C. The Identification of L2 and L1 Elements = 287
D. Processing Strategies and L1 Structural Influence = 290
E. The Developmental Dimension = 291
F. The Role of Universal Typological Preferences = 293
G. Contextual Constraints = 295
H. The Contribution of Theoretical Phonology = 297
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 299
References = 300
10 Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory : The Role of Language Transfer / Susan Gass
Ⅰ. Introduction = 317
Ⅱ. Language Transfer : An Historical Overview = 318
A. Defining Language Transfer = 318
B. Contrastive Analysis = 319
C. Creative Construction = 319
D. The Settling of the Pendulum = 320
Ⅲ. Language Transfer as a Cognitive Activity = 321
A. The Scope of Language Transfer Phenomena = 321
B. Predicting Language Transfer = 324
Ⅳ. Language Transfer and UG = 329
A. Principles of UG = 330
B. UG Parameters = 332
C. The Centrality of the NL = 334
Ⅴ. Language Transfer and the Competition Model = 335
Ⅵ. Effects on Grammars = 337
Ⅶ. Conclusion = 338
References = 340
Ⅳ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
11 Issues in Second Language Acquisition Research : Examining Substance and Procedure / David Nunan
Ⅰ. Introduction = 349
Ⅱ. Historical Background = 349
Ⅲ. Substantive Issues in L2 Acquisition Research = 350
A. Creative Construction = 351
B. Other Issues = 351
Ⅳ. Methodological Issues in L2 Acquisition Research = 359
A. Qualitative and Quantitative Research = 359
B. Longitudinal versus Cross-Sectional Research = 364
C. Experimental versus Naturalistic Data Collection = 365
D. Elicited versus Naturalistic Data = 366
E. Role Playing = 369
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 369
References = 371
12 The Use of Acceptability judgments in Second Language Acquisition Research / Antonella Sorace
Ⅰ. Introduction = 375
Ⅱ. The Nature of Linguistic Acceptability : General Issues = 376
A. Validity : What Does an Acceptability Judgment Test Measure ? = 376
B. Reliability : Why Do Informants Produce Inconsistent Judgments ? = 380
C. Acceptability Hierarchies and Universal Grammar = 382
Ⅲ. Linguistic Acceptability in Normative Languages = 384
A. Validity and Reliability of Normative Acceptability Judgments = 385
B. Indeterminacy in IL Grammars = 386
Ⅳ. The Empirical Measurement of Linguistic Acceptability = 391
A. The Elicitation of Acceptability Judgments = 391
B. Types of Judgment Scales = 393
C. Types of Responses : Absolute versus Comparative Judgments = 395
D. Applying the Psychophysical Paradigm : Magnitude Estimation of Linguistic Acceptability = 400
Ⅴ. Conclusions = 404
References = 405
Ⅴ MODALITYANDTHELINGUiSTICENVIRONMENT IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
13 The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition / Michael H. Long
Ⅰ. Some Possible Roles for the Environment = 413
Ⅱ. Foreigner Talk Discourse and Positive Evidence = 414
Ⅲ. The Insufficiency of Comprehensible input = 421
Ⅳ. Input and Cognitive Processing = 426
A. Attention, Awareness, and Focus on Form = 426
B. Negative Evidence = 430
Ⅴ. Negotiation for Meaning and Acquisition = 445
A. The Role of Conversation = 445
B. The Interaction Hypothesis = 451
References = 454
14 The Acquisition of English Syntax by Deaf Learners / Gerald P. Berent
Ⅰ. Deafness and Language Acquisition = 469
Ⅱ. Deaf Learners' Knowledge of Specific English Structures = 472
A. Sentence Complexity and Parts of Speech = 472
B. The TSA Structures = 473
C. Nine Syntactic Structures in Context = 480
D. Clausal and Nonclausal Structures = 482
E. Infinitive Complement Interpretation = 483
Ⅲ. A Framework for Explaining Deaf Learners' Syntactic Knowledge = 484
A. Theoretical Background = 484
B. Young Hearing Children's Phrasal Structures = 488
C. Deaf Learners' Acquisition of English Syntax = 489
Ⅳ. Learnability and Deaf Learners' Syntactic Knowledge = 494
A. Binding Principles and Learnability = 494
B. Movement Rules and Learnability = 497
C. Be as a Raising Verb = 499
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 500
References = 502
Ⅵ THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND USE
15 Neurolinguistics of Second Language Acquisition and Use / Loraine K. Obler ; Sharon Hannigan
Ⅰ. Introduction = 509
Ⅱ. The Process of L2 Acquisition = 511
A. A Critical or Sensitive Period = 511
B. Factors Involved in Successful Postpubertal L2 Acquisition = 512
Ⅲ. Lateral Dominance for Language in Bilinguals = 513
Ⅳ. Language Breakdown = 516
Ⅴ. Future Directions = 519
References = 520
Ⅶ LANGUAGE CONTACT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
16 The Primacy of Aspect in First and Second Language Acquisition : The Pidgin-Creole Connection / Roger W. Andersen ; Yasuhiro Shirai
Ⅰ. Introduction = 527
Ⅱ. Tense and Aspect = 530
A. Grammatical Aspect versus Inherent Lexical Aspect = 530
B. The Vendlerean Four-Way Classification = 531
Ⅲ. Acquisition of Tense and Aspect = 533
A. L1 Acquisition = 533
B. L2 Acquisition = 543
Ⅳ. The Distributional Bias Hypothesis = 548
A. Introduction = 548
B. Distributional Bias Studies = 549
Ⅴ. A Prototype Account = 555
A. Prototype Theory = 555
B. Tense and Aspect Morphology as a Prototype Category = 555
Ⅵ. Summary and Discussion = 559
A. Description = 559
B. Explanation = 560
References = 562
17 Bilingualism / Suzanne Romaine
Ⅰ. Introduction = 571
A. Definitions of Bilingualism = 571
B. Relationship between Bilingualism and Other Research Fields = 572
Ⅱ. Bilingual Speech Communities = 573
A. The Sociolinguistic Composition of Multilingual Countries = 574
B. Domains of Language Use = 576
C. Diglossia and Bilingualism = 577
D. Language Maintenance and Shift = 580
Ⅲ. Bilingual Individuals = 583
A. Measuring Bilingualism = 584
B. Problems with Measuring Bilingualism = 588
C. Borrowing and Interference as an Individual and Community Phenomenon = 589
Ⅳ. Bilingualism and Education = 592
A. Bilingualism and School Achievement = 592
B. Types of Bilingual Education Programs = 593
C. Bilingual Education in an International Perspective = 596
D. Legal Implications Arising from Legislation on Bilingual Education = 597
E. Reactions to Bilingual Education = 597
Ⅴ. Attitudes toward Bilingualism = 598
A. Negative and Positive Attitudes toward Bilingualism = 598
B. Attitudes toward Code Switching = 599
Ⅵ. Conclusion = 600
References = 601
18 Primary Language Attrition in the Context of Bilingualism / Herbert W. Seliger
Ⅰ. Defining Primary Language Attrition = 605
Ⅱ. Primary Language Attrition and L2 or Foreign Language Loss = 607
A. The Problem of Establishing Baseline Knowledge = 607
B. The Manner and Context of Acquisition = 608
Ⅲ. Primary Language Attrition and Other Forms of Language Mixing = 610
Ⅳ. L1 Attrition and Linguistic Theory = 614
A. Performance or Competence = 614
B. External Sources of Evidence = 616
C. Internal Sources of Evidence = 616
D. An Example of a Universal Principle in Primary Language Attrition = 617
E. Redundancy Reduction as an Inevitable Process = 623
Ⅴ. Conclusion : Context Dependence, Bilingualism, and Primary Language Attrition = 623
References = 625
19 Bilingual Language Mixing, Universal Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition / Tej K. Bhatia ; William C. Ritchie
Ⅰ. Introduction = 627
Ⅱ. Definitions of CM and CS, Borrowing, and Other Related Phenomena = 629
A. Matrix and Embedded Language = 631
B. Borrowing and CM and CS = 632
C. CM and CS and Pidgin and Creoles = 634
D. CM and CS and Diglossia = 634
Ⅲ. Types of CM and CS = 635
Ⅳ. Constraints on CM and CS = 638
A. Is CM a Random Phenomenon ? = 639
B. The Search for Universals = 640
C. Formal Constraints on CM = 640
D. Theoretical Models and Constraints on CM = 645
Ⅴ. Semantics of CS and CM = 657
Ⅵ. Sociopsychological, Linguistic and Pragmatic Motivations for CM and CS = 659
A. Linguistic and Pragmatic Functions = 659
B. Nonlinguistic (Sociopsychological) Functions = 662
Ⅶ. Attitudes toward CM and CS = 667
Ⅷ. Polyglot Aphasia and CM and CS = 670
Ⅸ. CM and CS and Language Acquisition = 674
Ⅹ. Problems = 679
A. Theoretical and Analytical Problems = 680
B. Methodological Problems = 681
XI. Conclusions = 682
References = 683
GLOSSARY = 689
AUTHOR INDEX = 707
SUBJECT INDEX = 723